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<p align=center style='text-align:center'><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p></p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><b><span style='font-size:24.0pt;
font-family:"Wide Latin"'>Unit Five: 1840-1877</span></b></p>

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<p align=center style='text-align:center'><b><span style='font-size:18.0pt'>Manifest
Destiny</span></b></p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><i>Manifest Destiny is the belief
that Americans had the right, or even the duty, to expand westward across the
North American continent from the </i><st1:place><i>Atlantic Ocean</i></st1:place><i>
to the </i><st1:place><i>Pacific Ocean</i></st1:place><i>. This would spread
the glorious institutions of civilization and democracy to the barbaric Native
Americans. In order to accomplish this destiny, Americans did not flinch at
atrocities such as provoking war with </i><st1:country-region><st1:place><i>Mexico</i></st1:place></st1:country-region><i>
or slaughtering Indians.</i></p>

<p><st1:place><st1:PlaceName><b>Great</b></st1:PlaceName><b> </b><st1:PlaceName><b>American</b></st1:PlaceName><b>
 </b><st1:PlaceType><b>Desert</b></st1:PlaceType></st1:place><b>:</b> The
&quot;<st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Great</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceName>American</st1:PlaceName>
 <st1:PlaceType>Desert</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>&quot; was a nickname for the
<st1:place>Great Plains</st1:place>. This area, the present -day <st1:place>Midwest</st1:place>,
was characterized by its arid climate, a flat topography, and lack of trees.
Because of these features, it was considered inhospitable and early settlers
chose to cross it on the way to the Willamette Valley of Oregon rather than
settling there. </p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>&quot;MANIFEST
DESTINY&quot;</u>:</b> &quot;Manifest Destiny&quot; was the term used,
throughout the 1840s, to describe Americans&#8217; belief that they were
destined by God to spread their beliefs across the continent. This sense of
duty created a sense of unity among the nation and stimulated westward
expansion. The term itself was coined by John O&#8217;Sullivan in an 1845
magazine article. The concept justified westward expansion in all its forms and
ramifications, including the Mexican War, the persecution of the Indians, and
other such ethnocentric acts.</p>

<p><b>Was it Imperialism?:</b> American annexation of territories such as
Oregon are generally not considered imperialistic because these lands were
obtained by negotiation between two equal powers and the people there were not
opposed to joining the Union. However, lands gained by force, such as the
Mexican cession, are considered imperialistic conquests.</p>

<p><b>Horace Greeley:</b> <st1:City><st1:place>Greeley</st1:place></st1:City>
was a journalist and political leader. He opposed slavery, but he was not an
abolitionist. He was editor of the <i>New Yorker</i> and a Whig associated with
Governor Seward of New York. In 1841, he founded the <i>New York Tribune</i>.
In 1872, he was the Liberal Republican nominee for president.</p>

<p><b><u>Annexation of Texas, Joint Resolution under President Tyler</u>: </b>In
1843, Tyler started a campaign to annex Texas, and in 1844 he succeeded in
sending a treaty to Congress for the annexation. This treaty was defeated in
the Senate, but later, in early 1845, Congress passed a joint resolution to
annex Texas because of the growing popularity of annexation.</p>

<p><b>Reoccupation of Texas:</b> After Congress voted to annex Texas, the
Mexican governmen began war preparations when Texans accepted annexation. In
response, Polk sent troops to occupy Texas and the disputed territory south of
the Nueces River. Polk believed that the land was part of the Louisiana
Purchase, and therefore it belonged to the United States.</p>

<p><b>Reannexation of Oregon: </b>Prior to 1846, America and Great Britain had
jointly occupied the Oregon Country. However, in 1844, Polk began to demand
that America obtain the entire territory. In compromise, a treaty was signed in
1846 giving the United States all of Oregon south of the 49<sup>th</sup>
parallel.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>ELECTION OF 1844</u>:</b>
In the election of 1844, the Whigs nominated Henry Clay. The Democrats,
however, were divided between Martin Van Buren and Lewis Cass. A deadlock at
the Democratic national convention resulted in the nomination of dark-horse
candidate James K. Polk. The Liberty party, consisting of a small group of
northern antislavery Whigs who were alienated by Clay&#8217;s indecisiveness,
nominated James G. Birney. Also, large numbers of Irish immigrants turned out
to vote for Polk, and he won by a small margin.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>JAMES K. POLK</u>:</b>
Polk was a slaveowning southerner dedicated to Democratic party. In 1844, he
was a &quot;dark horse&quot; candidate for president, and he won the election.
Polk favored American expansion, especially advocating the annexation of Texas,
California, and Oregon. He was a friend and follower of Andrew Jackson. He
opposed Clay&#8217;s American System, instead advocating lower tariff,
separation the treasury and the federal government from the banking system. He
was a nationalist who believed in Manifest Destiny.</p>

<p><b>54</b><b><span style='font-family:Symbol'>�</span> 40&#8217; or Fight!:</b>
In the election of 1844, Polk used &quot;54<span style='font-family:Symbol'>�</span>
40&#8217; or Fight!&quot; as a campaign slogan, implying that the he would
declare war if Britain did not give the United States all the Oregon territory
up to its northern boundary, the line 54<span style='font-family:Symbol'>�</span>
40&#8217; N. latitude. However, in 1846 Polk agreed to negotiate, and the two
countries divided Oregon at the 49<sup>th</sup> parallel.</p>

<p><b>Slidell Mission to Mexico:</b> Slidell was a negotiator sent to Mexico by
James Polk with orders to gain Mexico&#8217;s recognition of the independence
of Texas and to purchase California and New Mexico. However, he was not
received by the Mexican government because the threat of military revolt left
the Mexican president to weak to negotiate.</p>

<p><b>Rio Grande, Nueces River, Disputed Territory:</b> A dispute over the
southern boundary of Texas contributed to the Mexican War. Mexico claimed that
the Nueces River was boundary of Texas, but Polk insisted that the Rio Grande
River was the boundary line. The land between these two rivers was uninhabited,
but it was a significant slice of Mexican territory.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>MEXICAN WAR</u>:</b> The
Mexican war lasted from 1846 to 1848. The main cause of the war was American
desire for territory, especially Texas and California. The war took place
mainly on Mexican soil. Partially because of disorganization and instability in
the Mexican government, the war resulted in and American victory. The Treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending the war, made the southern boundary of Texas the Rio
Grande, gave California and New Mexico to the United States, and gave $15
million to Mexico in compensation. </p>

<p><b>General Zachary Taylor:</b> Taylor was an American major general who
became a war hero during the Mexican War. His troops won important victories in
northern Mexico at Matamoros, Monterrey, and Buena Vista, and his resulting
popularity helped him win the presidential election in 1848.</p>

<p><b>Battle of Buena Vista:</b> The battle of Buena Vista was a battle during
Mexican War. Five thousand American troops commanded by General Taylor defeated
three times as many Mexican troops under Santa Anna. As a result of this
battle, Taylor was put in control of all of northern Mexico. This American
victory also hastened end of the War.</p>

<p><b>Stephen Kearney:</b> Kearney was an American colonel in the Mexican War.
In 1846, he led an army to Santa Fe and took the New Mexico territory without
firing a shot. Kearny then suppressed a rebellion of both Indians and Mexicans,
and managed to send a detachment of his army south into Mexico in time to join
Taylor in the Battle of Buena Vista.</p>

<p><b>John C. Fremont:</b> Fremont was an explorer, soldier, and politician
known as &quot;the Great Pathfinder.&quot; In 1846, he assisted in the
annexation of California by capturing insurgents, seizing the city of Sonoma,
and declaring the independence of the &quot;Bear Flag Republic.&quot; In 1856,
Fremont became the first presidential candidate for the Republican party.</p>

<p><b>Senator Thomas Hart Benton:</b> Senator Benton was an American statesman.
He represented Missouri in both the Senate and the House of Representatives.
His daughter, Jessie Benton, married adventurer John C. Fremont, and Benton
used his influence to have records of Fremont&#8217;s explorations published as
government documents.</p>

<p><b>General Winfield Scott:</b> General Scott commanded American troops
during the Mexican War, and led those troops victory at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo,
and Chapultepec. He also led the final defeat of Santa Anna when he captured Mexico
City in 1847. He ran for president of United States in 1852.</p>

<p><b>Nicholas Trist:</b> Trist was the chief clerk of state department and a
peace officer. He was sent to Mexico by Polk to negotiate with Mexican
president Herrera. They wanted Trist to convince Herrera to lower the price he
was asking for California and to give Americans the right of movement over the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. In 1846, Herrera rejected the offer.</p>

<p><b>All Mexico Movement:</b> Many Senators in Congress wanted the Treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo to include all of Mexico, because they believed that to have
control of all of Mexico would give the United States more power. However, this
movement failed because the acquisition of California and her ports satisfied
Polk.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>MEXICAN CESSION</u>:</b>
The Mexican Cession was the land that Mexico ceded to the United States in the
Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo in 1848. This territory included California, New
Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Texas, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The
addition of so much land to the United States exacerbated conflict over the
expansion of slavery because some Northerners feared that the extension of
slavery into California and New Mexico would deter free laborers from settling
there. </p>

<p><b>Webster-Ashburton Treaty:</b> The Webster-Ashburton Treaty was a treaty
negotiated by Lord Ashburton of Great Britain and Daniel Webster of the United
States in 1842. It settled a dispute over the boundary between Maine and New
Brunswick. The treaty was very popular in the North because the United States
got more than half of the disputed territory.</p>

<p><b>Caroline Affair: </b>The American steamboat, the <i>Caroline,</i> was
being used by Canadian rebels when it was attacked by the government of Canada
in late 1837 in American waters. In 1842 Daniel Webster asked for an apology
from British government. The event heightened tensions between the United
States and Britain, but this tension was soon eased.</p>

<p><b>Aroostook War:</b> The Aroostook War was a boundary dispute between
settlers in Maine and New Brunswick from 1838 to 1839. Full-scale war was
avoided through an agreement in 1839, and the issue was settled by
Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>OREGON FEVER</u>:</b>
During the 1830s and 1840s, many Americans traveled to the Oregon Territory in
order to start a new life. The fertile farmland available in the Willamette
Valley attracted many farmers. People in the East heard exaggerated,
enthusiastic reports from missionaries and pioneers, convincing them that
Oregon was a &quot;pioneer&#8217;s paradise.&quot; Many settlers traveled to
Oregon overland by way of the Oregon Trail or around Cape Horn in the newly
invented clipper ships. This was an important part of westward expansion.</p>

<p><b>John Jacob Astor:</b> Astor was a wealthy New York merchant who invested
in real estate. He became involved in the fur business and organized a fur
trading empire from the Great Lakes to the Pacific Ocean and to China and
Japan. He created the American Fur Company and established Astoria, the first
major fur trading post in Oregon.</p>

<p><b>Oregon Trail:</b> The Oregon Trail was an overland route to the Oregon
territory, stretching almost 2,000 miles from Independence, Missouri to the
Willamette Valley. The pioneers who traveled this trail in wagon trains faced
many dangers. It is estimated that about 11,500 emigrants used overland trails
like the Oregon Trail to reach Oregon between 1840 and1848. </p>

<p><b>Willamette Valley:</b> The Willamette Valley was an area of fertile
farmland in the Oregon Territory which attracted large numbers of farmers in
the 1830s and 1840s, especially those from the Mississippi River Valley. Reports
of the abundance of this land sparked the movement of many pioneers to the West
Coast.</p>

<p><b>Oregon Territory:</b> Congress made the Oregon Territory an official
territory of the United States in 1848. Prior to 1846, the Oregon Territory had
been jointly occupied by Great Britain and the United States with its northern
boundary the line 54�40&#8217;. In a 1846 treaty, the two countries split the
territory, dividing it at the 49<sup>th</sup> parallel.</p>

<p><b>49<sup>th</sup> Parallel:</b> The 49<sup>th</sup> parallel was the line
of latitude dividing the United States&#8217; and Great Britain&#8217;s
portions of the Oregon Territory after 1846. Originally they had jointly
occupied the entire territory, but a compromise was forged in 1846 because
president Polk demanded title to this territory and neither side wanted to go to
war over it. </p>

<p><b>Election of 1848: Cass, Taylor: </b>Zachary Taylor was the Whig candidate
in the election of 1848, and his platform was based solely on personal
popularity because he was a war hero.; Lewis Cass was the Democratic candidate.
Both parties avoided making the issue of slavery a campaign issue. Taylor won
election on his popularity.</p>

<p><b>Joseph Smith: </b>Joseph Smith was the founder of the Mormon church. He
translated the Book of Mormon in 1827, after which, he and his followers set up
a model city and temple in Nauvoo, Illinois. Smith saw himself as a prophet,
increasing the negative sentiment towards Mormonism. After being charged with
treason and jailed, he was killed by a mob in 1844.</p>

<p><b>Brigham Young:</b> Brigham Young was the patriarch of the Mormon church who
took control of the church after Joseph Smith was killed. After the Mormons
were forced out of Illinois, Young led them to Utah in 1846, where they
prospered. Young has been criticized for both his support of polygamy and his
intolerance towards opposition.</p>

<p><b>Mormons:</b> The Mormon religion was founded in 1827 by Joseph Smith.
Their church is based in Utah and they believe that the Book of Mormon is the
supplement for the Bible. The Mormons are characterized by their preference to
be set apart from the rest of the community, apparent in their views, which
were antebellum in the time the religion was born. </p>

<p><b>John Sutter:</b> John Sutter was granted 49,000 acres of land by the
Mexican government in 1834 and established a sawmill on the land in 1846. In
1848, he discovered gold. This discovery led to the onset of the California
Gold Rush. Land squatters disputed over Sutter&#8217;s land claims and,
subsequently, Sutter&#8217;s holdings were found invalid by the Supreme Court.</p>

<p><b>forty-niners:</b> In 1849, 100,000 Americans, along with immigrants from
Europe, Asia and South America rushed to California in search of easy riches.
Competition led to violence and greed. As a result of inadequate shelter and
food and the lack of medical supplies, 10,000 died the first year and few even
benefited from the expedition. </p>

<p><b>Walker Tariff, 1846:</b> The Walker tariff was created by Robert J.
Walker, Polk&#8217;s secretary of the treasury, in 1846. The bill slashed all
duties to the minimum necessary for revenue. It also reversed the trend of
replacing certain specifics for ad value duties and dropped the minimum
valuation principle. The tariff was signed July 30, 1846.</p>

<p><b>Independent Treasury System, Van Buren:</b> The system was introduced by
Martin Van Buren in 1837 and it passed through Congress in 1840. The bill had
the federal government keep their revenue, and by doing this, kept public money
from private business corporations. This also kept the government&#8217;s money
out of state banks.</p>

<p><b>Independent Treasury System, Polk:</b> After Van Buren was defeated in
the election of 1840 by William Henry Harrison, the Independent Treasury System
was repealed. However, when Polk was elected in 1844, he brought back the
Independent Treasury System. This intensified the divisions between the Whigs
and Democrats.</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'>&nbsp;</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><b><span style='font-size:18.0pt'>Expansion
and Slavery</span></b></p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><i>The expansion of slavery into new
territories and onto the western frontier became a major issue after the
Mexican-American War. Southerners fought to assert their rights while many
Northerners wished to prevent the expansion of slave labor into new states.</i></p>

<p><b>panic of 1857:</b> The causes of the panic were overspeculation in
railroads and lands, false banking practices, and a break in the flow of
European capital to American investments as a result of the Crimean War. The
South&#8217;s less industrial economy suffered less than the North, who viewed
this as a proof of superiority in both Southern economy and slavery.</p>

<p><b><u>Wilmot Proviso</u>:</b> David Wilmot, a Congressman from Pennsylvania,
proposed that slavery be banned in land acquired from the Mexican War. The
proviso was given to Congress in August 1846. It never passed the Senate, but
passed the House. It was taken out of the War Appropriations bill in order for
Senate to pass the actual bill.</p>

<p><b>Barnburners:</b> The Barnburners were a part of the Democratic party in
New York. They left in 1848 to form the Free Soil Party but rejoined after the
election of 1848. They believed slavery should not be extended into the newly
acquired U.S. territory and were pro-Wilmot Proviso. Their party slogan was
&quot;Free Trade, Free Labor, Free Speech, Free Men.&quot; </p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>TREATY OF GUADALUPE
HIDALGO</u>: </b>This was the peace treaty between the United States and Mexico
that ended the Mexican War. Through the treaty, Mexico gave Texas with Rio
Grande boundary, California , and New Mexico to the United States. The U.S.
assumed all claims of the American people against the Mexican government and
also paid Mexico 15 million dollars. The treaty was signed on February 2, 1848.
In the end, the treaty worked to expand the U.S. territory to include parts of
Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada.</p>

<p><b>Free Soil Party: </b>The Free Soil Party created by the Barnburners,
Conscience Whigs, and the former Liberty party members in the election of 1844.
They nominated Martin Van Buren on a platform of opposition to any kind of
slavery. Although they were unable to carry any state, they had enough
influence in North to convey their point.</p>

<p><b>California applies for admission as a state:</b> Because the population
grew during the gold rush and they were in need of a better government,
California decided to petition to become a state in September of 1849. There
was controversy on the issue of it being a free or slave state, but through the
Compromise of 1850, California was admitted as a free state.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>COMPROMISE OF 1850:</u></b>
The Compromise of 1850 was an eight part compromise devised by Henry Clay in
order to settle the land disputes between the North and South. As part of the
compromise, California was admitted a free state, while a stricter Fugitive
Slave Law was enforced. Slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia,
while slavery itself was not abolished and sectional peace returned to the
northern and southern states for a few years. The issue of slavery eventually
did lead to future conflicts, though.</p>

<p><b>Omnibus bill:</b> The omnibus bill is a term used to describe a bill that
has many unrelated and separate topics within it. The bill most commonly known
for being omnibus is the Compromise of 1850. Henry Clay introduced the bill as
a whole, but it was later pushed through Congress as separate measures. Today,
most states do nor allow omnibus bills.</p>

<p><b>Henry Clay:</b> Henry Clay was an influential American politician who
earned the title of &quot;The Great Pacificator&quot; with his development of
three compromises. He ran, unsuccessfully, for president six times and devised
the &quot;American System&quot; that favored a protective tariff and federal
support of internal improvements.</p>

<p><b>Webster&#8217;s 7th of March speech:</b> Webster&#8217;s speech was an
eloquent one presented in favor of the Compromise of 1850. Webster argued that
years of tension built up from the North&#8217;s growing power would be
relieved by the compromise and that the North would make the South its equal,
thus saving the Union. Despite his efforts, the speech made few converts.</p>

<p><b>John C. Calhoun:</b> Calhoun is most known for the &quot;nullification
crisis&quot; in 1828 between he and president Jackson over the tariff of 1828
(tariff of abominations). He supported the Compromise of 1850 on the basis of
the theory of nullification. He was a senator during the debates over the
compromise. Calhoun was also a war hawk.</p>

<p><b><u>Fugitive Slave Law</u>:</b> Unlike the previous 1793 slave law, the
1850 slave law was more strictly enforced. The results of the law were that the
North became a hunting ground for slaves and slaves were denied a trial by jury
and other protections they were entitled to. The anger of the slaves led to
riots and other acts of violence. </p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>PERSONAL LIBERTY LAWS</u>:</b>
Discontent with the injustice of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, northern
states passed &quot;personal liberty laws&quot; in order to strengthen the use
of the habeas corpus writs and prohibit state officials from accepting
jurisdiction under federal law. The laws included the prohibition of the use of
state jails to confine alleged fugitives. Southern states objected to the laws
because they violated sectional equity and reciprocal trust. Northern
resistance demonstrated that the slavery issue could not be ignored.</p>

<p><b>Gadsden Purchase: </b>The Gadsden Purchase was the 1853 treaty in which
the United States bought from Mexico parts of what is now southern Arizona and
southern New Mexico. Southerners wanted this land in order to build southern
transcontinental railroad. The heated debate over this issue in the Senate
demonstrates the prevalence of sectional disagreement.</p>

<p><b>Perry and Japan:</b> Commodore Perry opened relations with Japan, a
country closed to the rest of the world for 2 centuries, in 1853. The treaty he
forged protected the rights of sailors shipwrecked in Japanese territory from
inhumane treatment, permitted American ships to buy coal in Japan, opened
Japanese ports of to U.S. commerce, and ended Japan&#8217;s isolation.</p>

<p><b>Anthony Burns: </b>Burns was an American slave who escaped in 1834. He
was arrested on charges of theft and violation of the Fugitive Slave Law.
During the trial, a mob of Boston abolitionists stormed into the courthouse to
attempt, unsuccessfully, to rescue Burns. President Pierce sent him back to his
master, but Burns was resold to friends who freed him.</p>

<p><b><i>Ableman</i> v. <i>Booth</i>:</b> Booth was arrested for aiding the
escape of a fugitive slave in 1859. The Wisconsin Supreme Court issued a writ
of habeas corpus to release him, but habeas corpus was not valid as a result of
Chief Justice Taney&#8217;s decision that a court or judge has certain limits
of power. In turn, the battle for federal supremacy commenced.</p>

<p><b><i>Prigg</i> v. <i>Pa</i>., 1842:</b> This case resulted when
Pennsylvania attempted to ban the capture and return of runaway slaves within
its territory, a challenge to the fugitive slave law of 1793. Because article
IV, section 2 of the Constitution deems the return of fugitive slaves a federal
power, the state law was declared unconstitutional. </p>

<p><b><u>Ostend Manifesto</u>:</b> American ambassadors to Great Britain,
France, and Spain met in Ostend, Belgium in 1854 to issue an unofficial
document that gave the United States permission to attain Cuba by any necessary
means, even force, and include the island in the Union. President Pierce,
however, rejected the manifesto.</p>

<p><b>Stephen A. Douglas:</b> American politician known for his debates with
Abraham Lincoln prior to the election of 1860. Douglas was an advocate of the
annexation of Mexico, who aroused the question of slavery in territories with
the development of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854. He was also a strong supporter
of the Compromise of 1850.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT, 1854</u>:</b>
The Kansas-Nebraska Act ended the peace established between the North and South
by the Compromise of 1850. It was proposed by Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois
and repealed the Missouri Compromise. The act enforced popular sovereignty upon
the new territories but was opposed by Northern Democrats and Whigs. It was
passed, however, because President Pierce supported it. The purpose of the bill
was to facilitate the building of the transcontinental railroad on a central
route. </p>

<p><b>popular sovereignty:</b> this compromise solution was first proposed
during the time of the Wilmot Proviso: the residents of each territory had the
option of determining whether it would be a free or slave state; a part of the
Compromise of 1850 and Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854.Stephen Douglas a strong
advocator.</p>

<p><b>36</b><b><span style='font-family:Symbol'>�</span> 30&#8217; line:</b>
The 36<span style='font-family:Symbol'>�</span> 30&#8217; line was established
by the Missouri Compromise and drew on parts of California and New Mexico. The
Wilmot Proviso sought to extend the boundary line westward, blocking slavery
and territory north of that line. Polk supported the idea of expansion to end
the discussion of whether the new territory acquired was slave or free. </p>

<p><b>&quot;<u>Bleeding Kansas</u>&quot; and Lawrence:</b> Topeka and Lecompton
were the two rival governments of Kansas. Each claimed to be the lawful one,
thus armed themselves and commenced guerilla warfare. In 1856, Missouri
&quot;border ruffians,&quot; those who supported slavery, sacked the town of
Lawrence. John Brown, an abolitionist, also led a retaliation two days later .</p>

<p><b>&quot;Beecher&#8217;s Bibles&quot;:</b> Because the abolitionist
government in Kansas was organized in 1856, a pro-slavery posse armed with guns
mobbed through the town. Ridiculing the free staters, they dubbed their guns
&quot;Beecher&#8217;s Bibles,&quot; following the advice of an antislavery
minister that rifles would do no more than Bibles to enforce morality in
Kansas.</p>

<p><b>Pottawatomie Massacre:</b> John Brown led a small group of abolitionists
into a pro-slavery settlement in 1856 to kill unarmed men and boys at
Pottawatomie Creek in retaliation to the border ruffians&#8217; invasion and
sacking of the abolitionists&#8217; town of Lawrence. The retaliation was
preceded by a pro-slavery posse&#8217;s armed raid through Kansas. </p>

<p><b>Lecompton Constitution:</b> This constitution was devised by the
anti-slavery delegates of Congress in 1857 to protect the rights of the
slaveholders in Kansas and advocate popular sovereignty. Buchanan disapproved
of it, but supported it so that Kansas could be admitted as a state.</p>

<p><b>New England Emigrant Aid Company:</b> Aiming to prevent the expansion of
slavery into Kansas, Northerners sent antislavery settlers into this area in
1854, but their attempt was unsuccessful. Settlers from New England arrived
slowly, though the majority of settlers originated from Missouri and the
Midwest. Settlers were mixed in their views on slavery. </p>

<p><b>Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 during Illinois senatorial campaign:</b>
The Lincoln-Douglas debates were a series of seven, where Douglas argued on the
basis of his opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and depicted Lincoln as a
radical abolitionist. Lincoln condemned Douglas for not taking a moral stand
against slavery. </p>

<p><b>Lincoln&#8217;s &quot;house divided&quot; speech:</b> The &quot;house
divided&quot; speech was a speech presented before the Republican party&#8217;s
state convention in 1858 in Springfield, Illinois. It warned the people that a
&quot;house divided against itself cannot stand,&quot; referring to the slavery
issue. Lincoln predicted in his speech that there would mean eventual freedom
for the slaves. </p>

<p><b><u>Freeport Doctrine</u>: </b>Stephen A. Douglas&#8217; &quot;Freeport
Doctrine&quot; stated that exclusion of slavery in a territory could be
determined by the refusal of the voters to enact any laws that would protect
slave property. In 1858, southerners rejected the doctrine because it did not
insure the rights of slaves, a reaction that hurt him in the election. </p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'>&nbsp;</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><b><span style='font-size:18.0pt'>The
1850s: The Road to Secession</span></b></p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><i>During the 1850s, sectional issues
such as slavery became very divisive. The issue of slaver polarized people, and
Southern slaveowners felt that their rights and interests were no longer being
fairly represented. Northerners began to increasingly support free soil and
even abolition, so tensions between the two-sided mounted until Southerners
became convinced that nothing short of secession could protect them Northern
persecution.</i></p>

<p><b>Nashville Convention:</b> Delegates of the northern and southern states
assembled in the summer of 1850 to decide on the issue of the Compromise of
1850. Fire-eaters discussed southern rights, while suspicion of their secession
rose amongst the northerners. The meeting itself led to the ultimate decision
on the compromise.</p>

<p><b>fire-eaters:</b> The fire-eaters were extreme advocates of southern
rights. They walked out on the Nashville convention in 1850, raided a mass of
Irish canal workers, and whipped and lynched slaves in the 1860s. They were
labeled &quot;fire-eaters&quot; due to their recklessness and by making their
presence strongly felt by all those around. </p>

<p><b><i><u>Uncle Tom&#8217;s Cabin</u></i>:</b> Harriet Stowe, a Northern
abolitionist outraged by the Fugitive Slave Law, wrote this novel to illustrate
the evils of slavery. Though the South denounced the novel, 500,000 copies were
sold in the U.S. and others were translated into 20 languages. The novel
stimulated Northern action against slavery, contributing to the Civil War.</p>

<p><b>Harriet Beecher Stowe:</b> Stowe was an abolitionist writer who wrote
powerful novels attacking slavery both before and after the Civil War in such
novels as Dred, A Tale of Great Dismal Swamp (1856) and The Minister&#8217;s
Wooing (1859). The novels are rambled in structure, yet rich in pathos and
dramatic incident. She also wrote short stories and poetry.</p>

<p><b>election of 1852:</b> The election of 1852 was the end of the Whig Party.
Enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act split the Whig Party, and the nomination
of General Winfield Scott exacerbated the sectional split. The loss of votes
from the South was the result of Scott&#8217;s campaign. Franklin Pierce of the
Democratic party won the election with 27 of 31 states.</p>

<p><b>birth of the Republican Party:</b> The party was formed in 1854 by
northern Democrats who left the party because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
Former Whigs and Know-Nothings were party members, also. All opposed the
Kansas-Nebraska Act and believed that slavery should be banned from all
territories of the nation, except those states where slavery already existed. </p>

<p><b>election of 1856:</b> Republican Party, Know-Nothing Party: This election
was between John C. Fremont of the Republican Party, Millard Fillmore of the
Know-Nothing Party, and James Buchanan of Democratic Party. Fillmore&#8217;s
inexperience weakened his party, increasing the popularity of the Republicans.
Buchanan won the election.</p>

<p><b>John Brown&#8217;s raid:</b> The raid took place at Harper&#8217;s Ferry
in 1859, and was conducted by an abolitionist to raid the federal arsenal and
start a slave uprising. It failed and Brown was convicted of treason and hanged
because he had ties with the northern abolitionists. At his death, southern
fear of future slave uprisings increased, leading to the cruel treatment slaves.</p>

<p><b>Sumner-Brooks affair:</b> Charles Sumner, a senator from Massachusetts,
made a speech titled, &quot;The Crime Against Kansas,&quot; denouncing slavery,
and, at the same time, ridiculing the South Carolina senator, Charles Butler,
in 1856. Preston Brooks, Butler&#8217;s nephew came into the Senate chamber and
hit him on the head, making Brooks a hero in the South.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>DRED SCOTT DECISION</u>:</b>
Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ruled that Scott was not a citizen because he was
a slave in 1856, therefore, he did not have the right to sue in federal court.
It was determined that temporary residence in an area did not make one free,
and that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional because it violated the
fifth amendment, which did not allow Congress or territorial governments to exclude
slavery from any area. Republicans became more suspicious of Slave Power in
Congress.</p>

<p><b>Chief Justice Roger B. Taney:</b> Taney was a Southerner appointed by
Jackson as the 5th justice of the Supreme Court. He is well-known for handing
down the Dred Scott decision. Under his leadership, the federal government had
increased power over foreign relations. Taney ruled in 1861 that Lincoln
exceeded his authority in suspending habeas corpus.</p>

<p><b>John Brown:</b> John Brown was an American abolitionist who attempted to
end slavery through the use of violence. This increased the tension between the
North and South. He was the leader of John Brown&#8217;s raid and the
Pottawatomie massacre. His life ended when he was hanged for murder and
treason. He is regarded a martyr to the cause of human freedom. </p>

<p><b>Compact Theory of Government:</b> This theory involves the idea that the
United States of America was founded by the union of thirteen individual states
creating a federation of states. This plays a major role in justifying the
secession of the Southern states by stating that a state had the right to
withdraw from the political entity it created.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>ELECTION OF 1860</u>:</b>
candidates, parties, issues: A united republican party attempted to appeal more
to the North in order to win the campaign and developed an economic program to
amend the damages of the 1857 depression. They nominated Abraham Lincoln, who
held a moderate view on slavery. The democrats nominated two candidates,
Douglas and Breckenridge, each with opposing viewpoints on the slavery issue.
The constitutional party, created by Whigs, nominated John Bell, who had the
desire to preserve the Union. </p>

<p><b>Democratic Party conventions:</b> The first assembly of delegates in
Charleston in 1860 resulted in the split of the Democratic party as the Southern
&quot;fire-eaters&quot; left the convention. They were unable to agree on a
platform based on the protection of slavery. An unsuccessful second attempt to
reach a consensus in Baltimore led them to nominate two candidates. </p>

<p><b>John Bell: </b>Opposed to both Lincoln and Douglas, Whigs nominated Bell
in 1860, an opposer of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Lecompton constitution.
Bell created the new Constitutional Union party, which had a platform based on
the preservation of the Union, and not on the controversial slavery issue. </p>

<p><b>John Breckenridge:</b> A division in the Democratic Party led to the
nomination of two candidates for the 1860 election. Breckenridge,
Buchanan&#8217;s vice president, was nominated by secessionists on a platform
based on protection of slavery in territories. His nomination completed the
split of the Democratic party. </p>

<p><b>Republican Party of 1860:</b> In order to lure votes from Northern states
to their party, an economic system based on protective tariffs, federal aid for
internal improvements and the distributing of 160-acre homesteads to settlers
in order, was organized in favor of the Northerners. Lincoln&#8217;s nonchalant
views towards slavery led them to victory.</p>

<p><b>Buchanan and the secession crisis:</b> Buchanan declared secession of
states illegal, yet he had no power to prevent it. He refused Southern demands
to remove troops from Fort Sumter. Because his efforts to supply the fort
failed and due to failure of a constitutional plan, he left the office
disappointed and discredited. </p>

<p><b>Crittenden Compromise proposal:</b> The compromise was proposed by John
Crittenden in an attempt to preserve the Union. The amendments were to bar the
federal government from intervening in southern states&#8217; decision of
slavery, to restore the Missouri Compromise, and to guarantee protection of
slavery below this line. It also repealed personal liberty laws.</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'>&nbsp;</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'>&nbsp;</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'>&nbsp;</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><b><span style='font-size:18.0pt'>The
Civil War</span></b></p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><i>The Civil War was a terrible,
bloody war fought mainly over the issue of slavery. It divided the nation and
resulted in the death of more Americans than all other wars combined. The
Union, with advantages such as greater organization and prosperity, eventually
won, but not before 620,000 Americans died and thousands of fields, homes, and
entire towns were destroyed.</i></p>

<p><b>secession:</b> Slavery fueling the states&#8217; rights issue along with
the loss of Congress and Northern opposition to the new Fugitive Slave Law made
the election of 1860 the straw that broke up the union. By March 1861,
Lincoln&#8217;s innauguration South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama,
Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had seceded.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>South&#8217;s advantages
in the Civil War</u>: </b>The Confederate States of America had a strong
advantage in the fact that they were fighting a defensive war in familiar
territory, but it also had advantages buried deep within its much stronger military
tradition. Southerners came from a rural rather than urban environments and
therefore had more men experienced in the use of firearms and horses. This
allowed the Confederacy to produce a more able corps of officers, such as
Robert E. Lee. </p>

<p><b>Tredegar Iron Works:</b> guided by Joseph Reid to success during a time
when the economy in the North and South began to plunge because of their
increased divergence. It became the nation&#8217;s fourth largest producer of
iron products. During the Civil War the company contributed to the Confederacy
cause. </p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>North&#8217;s advantages
in the Civil War</u>:</b> The Union clearly had more military potential with
its larger population of 22 million. In addition to that, the Union had more
advantages in terms of material goods such as money and credit, factories for
manufacturing war goods, food production, mineral resources, and an established
railroad system to transport these material resources. The North in comparison
with the South in these areas makes the North seem more advantageous<b>.</b></p>

<p><b><u>Fort Sumter</u>:</b> Fort Sumter is a fort in Charleston harbor, South
Carolina and it was the site of the first conflict of the Civil War on Apr. 12,
1861. The Confederates under Beauregard bombarded the fort and were eventually
victorious, but the fort was eventually retaken by Union forces in 1865. </p>

<p><b>Bull Run: </b>On July 16, General McDowell began to move on Confederate
General Beauregard at Manassas Junction. McDowell attacked Beauregard&#8217;s
soldiers, with aid from the forces of Johnston, near the bridge over Bull Run River
and drove them to the Henry House Hill, but Jackson checked the advance and
routed the raw Union troops. </p>

<p><b><i>Monitor</i> and the <i>Merrimac</i>:</b> March 8, 1862 was the date of
first naval battle between ironclad ships. The Confederate ironclad frigate
Merrimac had sunk the Cumberland and defeated the Congress in Hampton Roads but
was forced to withdraw March 9 after an engagement with the Union&#8217;s
ironclad Monitor, built by John Ericsson. </p>

<p><b><u>Lee</u>: </b>Commanding the Army of N. Virginia, he took the offensive
in the 7 Days Battle and beat the Union army at the 2nd battle of Bull Run. Lee
repulsed Union advances at the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville
and Grant&#8217;s assaults in the Wilderness Campaign. Lee surrendered to Grant
at Appomatox Courthouse. </p>

<p><b>Jackson:</b> At the 1st battle of Bull Run Jackson earned his nick name
when he and his brigade stood &quot;like a stone wall.&quot; Serving under Lee,
Jackson flanked the Union army to set up the Confederate victory at the second
battle of Bull Run. At Chancellorsville Jackson again flanked the Union army
but was mortally wounded by his own troops. </p>

<p><b><u>Grant</u>:</b> In 1862 he captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in
Tennessee, barely escaped defeat at the Battle of Shiloh and ended Confederate
control of the Mississippi in Vicksburg. Commanding in the West, he thoroughly
defeated Bragg at Chattanooga. He directed the Union army in the Wilderness
Campaign and he received Lee&#8217;s surrender.</p>

<p><b>McClellan:</b> He was criticized for overcaution in the unsuccessful
Peninsular Campaign and removed from command. Called on again in 1862, he
checked Lee in the Antietam Campaign, but he allowed the Confederates to
withdraw across the Potomac and was again removed. He would run for president
in 1864.</p>

<p><b>Sherman:</b> He fought in the Vicksburg and Chatanooga campaigns and ge
undertook the Atlanta Campaign. He burned Atlanta and set off, with a force of
60,000, on his famous march to the sea, devastating the country. After
capturing Savannah, he turned north through S. Carolina, and received the
surrender of General Johnston. </p>

<p><b>Meade:</b> He made himself known in 1862 at Seven Days Battle and the
battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and later at Fredericksburg and
Chancellorsville. He commanded of the Army of the Potomac from 1863, and won
the battle of Gettysburg, but he was criticized for not following up his
victory.</p>

<p><b><u>Vicksburg</u>:</b> It was a battle fought for control of the
Mississippi River. By late 1862, the Union controlled all of the river except
for the 200 miles south of Vicksburg. In May of 1863 U.S. Grant opened siege,
and after 6 weeks the Confederates surrendered. Vicksburg&#8217;s fall
completed the encirclement of the Confederacy. </p>

<p><b><u>Gettysburg</u>:</b> It was Lee&#8217;s second invasion of the North.
Meade and Lee met just west of Gettysburg. First, the Union was pushed to
Cemetery Hill. Then the South took the Peach Orchard but were repulsed. On July
3 Lee ordered George E. Pickett&#8217;s division forward in its infamous
disastrous charge against the Union center. </p>

<p><b>Antietam:</b> In September 1862, trying to invade Maryland and
Pennsylvania, Lee sent Jackson to capture Harpers Ferry, but Lee&#8217;s own
advance was halted by McClellan, who attacked him at Antietam Creek, Maryland.,
on September 17, the so-called bloodiest day of the war. It was a Union victory
only in that Lee&#8217;s advance was stopped. </p>

<p><b><u>Appomattox</u>:</b> Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to
Union Gen. U.S. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865. The surrender
at Appomattox virtually ended the Civil War, but the rest of the Confederate
forces did not surrender until May 26 at Shreveport, Louisiana. </p>

<p><b>Jefferson Davis:</b> He left Washington after the secession of
Mississippi. As president of the Confederacy, he assumed strong centralized
power, and weakened the states&#8217; rights policy for which the South had
seceded. He had many disputes with Confederate generals, and Lee surrendered
without his approval. </p>

<p><b>Alexander Stephens:</b> He was a U.S. congressman from Georgia and was
opposed to secession but he remained loyal to Georgia when the state seceded.
He was elected vice president of the Confederacy, and he was against many of
the policies of President Davis. After the war he was interned for several
months.</p>

<p><b>cotton versus wheat: </b>Efforts by the Confederate government during the
Civil War to convince planters to grow to wheat instead of cotton received
little success. While some planters heeded the government&#8217;s pleas, many
clung to the belief that cotton would never fail them. As a result, food
shortages plagued the Confederacy.</p>

<p><b>Copperheads:</b> Copperheads were Northerners who sympathized with the
South during the Civil War. The term Copperheads was also used to label all
Democratic opponents of Lincoln. The group was led by Clement L. Vallandigham
and was especially strong in the states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.</p>

<p><b>Congressman Clement L. Vallandigham:</b> Vallandigham was the leader of
the Copperheads during the Civil War. He was briefly imprisoned in 1863 for
maintaining in a speech that the war was being fought to free African-American
and enslave whites. The 1864 Democratic platform reflected his pro-Southern
views.</p>

<p><b>suspension of habeas corpus:</b> Writs of habeas corpus are court orders
requiring that the a cause of imprisonment be demonstrated before a person is
jailed. This basic civil liberty was suspended by both Lincoln and Davis during
the war to deal with dissent. Lincoln used it to intimidate border states into
rejecting secession.</p>

<p><b>Republican legislation passed in Congress after Southerners left:
banking, tariff, homestead, railroad: </b>After the South seceded, northerners in
Congress enacted legislation such as the Pacific Railroad Act authorizing a
transcontinental railroad and the Homestead Act granting free land in the west.
Acts such as these had been blocked by southerners.</p>

<p><b>Homestead Laws:</b> The Homestead laws were laws passed in Congress in
1862. They permitted almost any American citizen to acquire a homestead of up
to 160 acres of land in the West, on the condition that the homesteader
cultivate the land for 5 years. This allowed poor farmers to obtain land in the
west and increased westward expansion.</p>

<p><b>Northern blockade:</b> During the Civil War, the north attempted to
establish a blockade of all Southern ports in order to stop the flow of
essential supplies to the Confederacy. The Union navy was fairly weak, so at
first the blockade was not as effective as northerners had hoped it would be
and blockade-running was a common way for Southerners to obtain supplies</p>

<p><b>Anaconda Plan:</b> The Anaconda Plan was a Union strategy in the Civil
War calling for the establishment of a naval blockade around the Confederacy to
prevent the importation of supplies from Europe. It was slowly implemented and
only partially successful, but the blockade did contribute to the Northern
victory.</p>

<p><b>Submarine:</b> Four submersible vessels were built during the American
Civil War by the Confederates for use against the federal fleet. One of these
submarines successfully dragged a mine through the water to sink a northern
ship, but sunk itself as well. Submarines were used only to a limited degree in
the Civil War, and they were far from perfected.</p>

<p><b>Black Soldiers: </b>It was not until late in the Civil War that African
American soldiers were allowed to participate in combat, and when they were,
they suffered a far higher mortality rate than white troops. Despite the many
hardships that it entailed, military service was a source of pride for blacks
because it symbolized their freedom.</p>

<p><b>Gatling Gun: </b>The Gatling gun was one of the earliest machine guns,
but it was the most effective of early models. The Gatling gun was created
created a man by the name Gatling, who intended to make war so horrible that it
would make peace. This weapon contributed to the high number of casualties in
the Civil War.</p>

<p><b>Rifle:</b> An improved rifle was one of the important technological
advancements that transformed the Civil War. They were able to hit targets more
accurately at large distances than previous guns, making open fields a hazard,
so that trench warfare became a necessity. This also contributed to the high
number of casualties during the war.</p>

<p><b>conscription, draft riots:</b> The Federal Militia Act of 1862 and the
Confederate Conscription Act of 1862 allowed for conscription, but contained
many loopholes. Riots in 1863 by anti-conscription protesters and impeded the
process of drafting soldiers, but the establishment of a draft prompted
volunteering.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>Emancipation Proclamation</u>:</b>
The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order ending slavery in the
Confederacy. It was issued by President Lincoln after the battle of Antietam.
The Emancipation Proclamation only freed slaves residing in the territories in
rebellion against the government of the United States. This proclamation had
the dual purpose of injuring the Confederacy and preventing Great Britain from
entering the war in support of the Confederacy. It also pushed the border
states toward abolishing slavery.</p>

<p><b>Charles Francis Adams:</b> Adams was an American diplomat who, as
ambassador during the Civil War, helped to keep the British from recognizing
the Confederacy. In the <i>Trent</i> affair, he was instrumental in averting
hostilities between the two nations, although he failed to stop the sailing of
the <i>Alabama,</i> a raider built in Great Britain for the Confederacy.</p>

<p><b><i>Alabama</i> claims: </b>There were a series of claims for indemnity
made by the United States upon Great Britain in 1862. The claims were for
compensation for damages inflicted on Union property by a Confederate steamship
built by the British, the <i>Alabama</i>. The claims were not resolved until
the Treaty of Washington in 1871.</p>

<p><b>Trent</b> <b>Affair:</b> In Nov., 1861, A Union captain stopped and
boarded a British vessel, the <i>Trent</i>, and removed Mason and Slidell, two
Confederate emissaries who were on board and he interned them in Boston.
President Lincoln released Mason and Slidell, but the issue increased tension
between the Union and Britain.</p>

<p><b>Laird rams:</b> The Laird rams were two double-turreted, ironclad
steamers, built by a company in England for the Confederate navy. The United
States threatened war if these ships were released to the South, so the British
purchased them for the royal navy. This was another source of diplomatic
tension during the Civil War.</p>

<p><b>&quot;continuous voyage&quot;: </b>The concept of &quot;continuous
voyage&quot; involves the idea that a voyage intended for an enemy port,
regardless of the number of stops made before arrival in the port, contains
contraband. During the Civil War the Union embraced this idea, seizing ships
traveling from England to the West Indies with the final destination of
Confederate ports.<b> </b></p>

<p><b>election of 1864:</b> In 1864, a number of Republicans sought to prevent
Lincoln&#8217;s renomination. In order to balance Abraham Lincoln&#8217;s Union
ticket with a Southern Democrat, the Republicans nominated Andrew Jackson for
vice president. Lincoln was able to overcome Democratic candidate George
McClellan and win a second term in office.</p>

<p><b>financing of the war effort by the North and the South: </b>In order to
pay for the Civil War, both the Confederate and Union governments were forced
to sell public lands and tax. The fear that heavy taxation would cause unrest
and corrode support of their cause, the governments issued bonds and, in the
North, greenbacks. This led to high inflation.,</p>

<p><b>Clara Barton:</b> Clara Barton, a Union nurse during the Civil War, was
known as &quot;the Angel of the Battlefield.&quot; She not only helped the war
effort by nursing; she also helped the Union obtain medical supplies. After the
War, Barton worked for the International Red Cross in the Franco-Prussian War,
and organized the American Red Cross, which she headed until 1904.</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'>&nbsp;</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><b><span style='font-size:18.0pt'>Reconstruction</span></b></p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><i>Reconstruction was the process of
bringing the southern states that had seceded during the Civil War back into
the Union. There were many disagreements about the best way to accomplish this
and many important pieces of legislation emerged as a result. Reconstruction
lasted from the end of the Civil War in 1865 until the Tilden-Hays Compromise
in 1877 restored the Democrats to power in the South.</i></p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>Lincoln&#8217;s ten
percent plan</u></b>: In it all southerners, except high-ranking Confederate
officials, could get a full pardon and restoration of rights after taking an
oath, pledging loyalty to the Union and accepting the end of slavery. When ten
percent of the 1860 voting population had taken this oath, citizens could vote
in elections that would create new state governments and new state constitutions.
After that the state would once again be eligible for representation in
Congress and readmitted to the Union.</p>

<p><b>assassination of April 14, 1865:</b> President Lincoln wass assassinated
while attending a performance of <i>Our American Cousin</i> at Ford&#8217;s
Theater in Washington, D.C. The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, escaped with a
broken leg, but he was shot later. Lincoln was succeeded by his vice president,
Andrew Johnson. </p>

<p><b>John Wilkes Booth:</b> Booth was a Southern sympathizer during the Civil
War, who plotted with six fellow-conspirators to assassinate Union leaders. On
Apr. 14, 1865, he shot President Lincoln during a performance of <i>Our
American Cousin</i> at Ford&#8217;s Theater in Washington, D.C. He escaped, but
was later shot and killed.</p>

<p><b>Ex parte Milligan:</b> <i>Ex parte Milligan</i> was an 1866 Supreme Court
limiting the authority of martial law and the suspension of habeas corpus in
times of war. In this case, the court declared that &quot;martial law can never
exist where the courts are open in the proper and unobstructed exercise of
their jurisdiction.&quot; </p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>Radical Republicans</u>:</b>
The Radical Republicans were a group of Republicans unhappy with the corruption
and policies of Grant&#8217;s administration. Among their leaders were Carl
Schurz, Horace Greely, and Charles Sumner. The party nominated Greeley for
president. Greely was a choice acceptable to the Democrats, but unpopular with
many of the leaders of his party, so Grant won reelection despite the
corruption within his administration and his poor leadership.</p>

<p><b><u>Wade-Davis bill</u>, veto, Wade Davis Manifesto: </b>Congress, in July
1864, passed the Wade-Davis Bill, calling for a stricter form of Reconstruction
than that proposed by Lincoln. After Lincoln pocket vetoed this bill, radicals
sought to displace him. They issued Wade-Davis Manifest, which declared the
primacy of Congress in matters of the Reconstruction.</p>

<p><b>Joint Committee on Reconstruction:</b> The Joint Committee on
Reconstruction was the Congressional committee consisting of leaders of both
houses of Congress which led Congressional Reconstruction after the
Reconstruction Acts of 1867 were passed. This committee would exist until after
Hayes was elected president.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>Reconstruction acts, 1867</u>:
</b>The Reconstruction Acts divided the Confederate states except Tennessee
into five military districts. Military commanders in the districts were
appointed to oversee constitutional conventions in the districts and the
creation of state constitutions. This military occupation would last until the
states created new constitutions that included black suffrage, the permanent
disfranchisement of Confederate leaders, and ratification of the 14th
Amendment. </p>

<p><b>conquered territory theory:</b> The conquered territory theory was a
popular theory held by many Reconstruction policy makers after the Civil War
that the southern states which seceded from the Union to form the Confederate
States of America should be treated as if they were territories conquered from
a foreign nation.</p>

<p><b><i>Texas v. White</i>, 1869:</b> The trial of <i>Texas</i> v. <i>White</i>
in 1868, was a case which involved the disposition of Civil War bonds used by
Texas, which had left the Union. It was held that states in rebellion did not
lose their existence or identity. The decision also declared secession
unconstitutional.</p>

<p><b>the unreconstructed South:</b> This term refers to failure of
Reconstruction to permanently reform the South. Even after Republicans
withdrew, there was corruption in the states, and exploitation of
African-Americans was common. When the states were readmitted into the Union,
civil rights legislation was practically overturned with open discrimination.</p>

<p><b><u>scalawags</u>:</b> A scalawag was a white Southerner who joined the
Republican party during the Reconstruction period. Scalawags were considered
traitors to the Southern cause and were condemned by Southern Democrats. The
term scalawag was applied both to entrepreneurs who supported Republican
economic policies and Whig planters who had opposed secession.</p>

<p><b><u>carpetbaggers</u>:</b> Carpetbaggers were Northerners who went to the
South during Reconstruction. They carried their belongings in carpetbags, and
most intended to settle in the South and make money there. The African-American
vote won them important posts in Republican state governments. </p>

<p><b>&quot;forty acres and a mule&quot;:</b> &quot;Forty acres and a
mule&quot; refers to the desire of Radical Republicans such as Thaddeus Stevens
to carry out land redistribution in the South. He wanted to subdivide
confiscated land and distribute it among the freedmen. Proposals such as these
failed in Congress and state legislatures.</p>

<p><b>black codes: </b>The black codes were local laws intended to force
African-Americans to continue working as plantation laborers. They imposed
prohibitive taxes, harsh vagrancy laws meant to intimidate the freedmen,
restrictions on blacks&#8217; ability to own property. Essentially, they condemned
the newly-freed slaves to conditions not unlike slavery.</p>

<p><b><u>Ku Klux Klan</u>:</b> The KKK was an organization formed by
ex-Confederates and led by Nathan B. Forrest. It was founded in the South in
1866 in opposition to Reconstruction. Members used disguises, rituals, whippings
and lynchings, to terrorize African-Americans and their supporters. Forrest
disbanded the Klan in 1869.</p>

<p><b>Thaddeus Stevens</b>: As a leader of the radical Republicans&#8217;
Reconstruction program after the Civil War, Stevens saw the Southern states as
&quot;conquered provinces.&quot; He sincerely desired the betterment of the
lives African-Americans. He proposed the Fourteenth Amendment, guaranteeing
civil rights and was a leader in the impeachment of President Johnson.</p>

<p><b>Charles Sumner:</b> Sumner was the aggressive abolitionist who was
physically assaulted by Preston Brooks after making a strong antislavery
speech. He was one of the leaders of the radical Republicans&#8217;
Reconstruction program and was also an active participant in the impeachment of
Andrew Johnson.</p>

<p><b><u>Andrew Johnson</u>:</b> As president he was denounced by the radical
Republicans for his Reconstruction program. When Johnson tried to force Stanton
out of office, the radical Republicans passed a resolution of impeachment
against him for violation of the Tenure of Office Act, but the Senate failed to
convict him by one vote. </p>

<p><b>Freedmen&#8217;s Bureau:</b> The Freedmen&#8217;s Bureau furnished food
and medical supplies to blacks, and to needy whites as well. It was also
concerned with the regulation of wages and working conditions, the maintenance
of schools for illiterate former slaves, and the distribution of lands
abandoned by or confiscated from Southern proprietors.</p>

<p><b>General Oliver O. Howard:</b> Howard was a Civil War general who took
part in the Bull Run, Antietam, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and Chattanooga
campaigns. As commissioner of the Freedmen&#8217;s Bureau after the war, he was
unable to prevent many abuses to freedmen, but managed to provided needed food
and medical and employment aid to many people.</p>

<p><b>Civil Rights Act</b>: This act was passed in Congress with nearly
unanimous Republican support in March 1866, and it attempted to redress the
issue of slavery by defining all persons born in the nation as citizens. It
also specified the rights of citizens, the right to sue, make contracts, give
evidence in court, hold, convey, and inherit property.</p>

<p><b><u>Thirteenth Amendment</u>:</b> The Thirteenth Amendment to the
Constitution was ratified in 1865. It prohibited &quot;slavery or involuntary
servitude except as punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly
convicted.&quot; This amendment guaranteed freedom for African Americans.</p>

<p><b><u>Fourteenth Amendment</u>:</b> The Fourteenth Amendment was passed in
1868. It said that no state can make or enforce any law which &quot;deprives
any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.&quot;
Also, states could not &quot;deny to any person within its jurisdiction the
equal protection of the laws.&quot;</p>

<p><b><u>Fifteenth Amendment</u>:</b> Secretary of State Hamilton Fish ratified
the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution of United States on March 30, 1870.
This amendment explicitly forbid denial of the right to vote for citizens
&quot;on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.&quot;</p>

<p><b>Tenure of Office Act:</b> The Tenure of Office Act was a measure passed
by Congress in 1867. It prohibited the president from dismissing any cabinet
member or other federal officeholder whose appointment had required the consent
of the Senate unless the Senate agreed to the dismissal. Johnson&#8217;s
violation of this act caused the impeachment crisis.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>IMPEACHMENT</u>: </b>Impeachment
is the formal accusation by a legislature against a public official, to remove
him from office. The term includes both the bringing of charges, or articles,
and the trial that may follow. President Andrew Johnson, after violating the
Tenure of Office Act, by removing Secretary of War Stanton faced impeachment.
The formal accusation of Johnson went through the House on Feb. 24, 1868, but
the Senate failed to convict him. This is the only instance of impeachment of
an American president.</p>

<p><b>Chief Justice Chase:</b> Salmon Chase was the sixth chief justice of the
Supreme Court and an abolitionist. As chief justice, he presided over the
impeachment trial of President Johnson. His greatest achievement, however, was
as secretary of the treasury, when he created a national bank system.</p>

<p><b>Secretary of War Stanton:</b> Edwin Stanton served as the secretary of
war under Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, but his dismissal by President
Andrew Johnson and his subsequent refusal to leave office act precipitated the
impeachment of President Johnson in 1868.</p>

<p><b>Hiram R. Revels, Blanche K. Bruce: </b>Revels and Bruce were the first
two African-American politicians to serve a full term in the United States
Senate. They were both representatives from Mississippi, and were the only two
African-American Senators during Reconstruction.</p>

<p><b><span style='font-size:13.5pt'>&#8226;</span><u>Compromise of 1877</u>:</b>
As a result of the electoral vote from the election of 1876, Congress created a
15-member bipartisan commission, on January 29, 1877, to resolve the dispute
concerning the electoral votes between Tilden and Hayes. The committee
consisted of five Democrats, five Republicans, and five Supreme Court justices.
Hayes was unanimously awarded the electoral votes from Oregon and South
Carolina and the ones from Louisiana by a commission vote of 8 to 7.</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'>&nbsp;</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><b><span style='font-size:18.0pt'>The
Legacy of Reconstruction</span></b></p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><i>Reconstruction changed the lives
of southerners,, especially those of the many slaves who first tasted freedom
during this period. Southern society changed in order to adjust to
emancipation, but former slaves were still relegated to inferior and submissive
positions through economic, political, and social restrictions of their rights.
The social and political atmosphere of the postwar South would endure long into
the 20<sup>th</sup> century.</i></p>

<p><b>Reconstruction Myth:</b> The Reconstruction Myth is the false belief that
during Reconstruction, Radical Republicans intended to exploit the South by
forcing it into economic and political submission. Such beliefs were promoted
by movies such as <i>Birth of a Nation</i>, and <i>Gone With the Wind.</i></p>

<p><b><u>Solid South</u>: </b>After Reconstruction, the South became solidly
Democratic. Once they gained control, the Democrats cut back expenses, wiped
out social programs, lowered taxes, and limited the rights of tenants and
sharecroppers. These white southerners remained a major force in national
politics well into the 20<sup>th</sup> century.</p>

<p><b>sharecropping:</b> It was the farm tenancy system that arose from the
cotton plantation system after the Civil War. Landlords provided land, seed,
and credit. The croppers contributed labor and received a share of the
crop&#8217;s value, minus their debt to the landlord. This along with the crop
lien system held back African Americans economically.</p>

<p><b>crop lien system</b>: Through this system, the white southern landowners
possessed a tight hold over African American farm production during much of the
Reconstruction periond. Black economic rights were eroded away with this crop
lien system and along with sharecropping. A cycle of dependency and debt would
be the result of these systems.</p>

<p><b>segregation</b>: Segregation was the practice held in the South after
legislation made explicit discrimination in law illegal. In response to that
legislation the concept of &quot;separate but equal&quot; dominated the
policies Southern policy makers. This practice of keeping the races separate
would not officially broken up until the mid-twentieth century.</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'>&nbsp;</p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><b><span style='font-size:18.0pt'>Grantism
and Postwar Politics</span></b></p>

<p align=center style='text-align:center'><i>Ulysses S. Grant was elected
president of the United States in 1868 because he was a war hero, but his
cabinet was riddled with corruption. Grant did manage to make some important
accomplishments in the area of foreign policy, but his ability to cope with
domestic controversy, especially the economic issues which began to arise, created
chaos in national politics.</i></p>

<p><b>Ulysses S. Grant: </b>Grant was an American general and the 18th
president of the United States. A war hero, Grant was admired throughout the
North and was endorsed by Union veterans. Although he was a strong military
leader, Grant proved to be a passive president with little skill at politics.</p>

<p><b>purchase of Alaska:</b> Alaska was ceded to the United States by the
Russian Czar Alexander II in a treaty signed on March 30, 1867. Secretary of
State William Henry Seward arranged the $7.2 million purchase at 1.9� per acre.
Critics ridiculed this purchase as &quot;Seward&#8217;s icebox,&quot; but it
expanded American territory at a reasonable price. </p>

<p><b>Secretary of State William Seward:</b> Seward was the American Secretary
of State who handled diplomatic issues during and after the Civil War. He was
involved in the Trent Affair and his most notable act was the purchase of
Alaska. This purchase was denounced at the time as &quot;Seward&#8217;s folly,
but it added a significant amount of territory to the United States.</p>

<p><b>Napoleon III: </b>After his election in 1848, Napoleon III proclaimed
himself the Emperor of France, instituted reforms, and rebuilt Paris. His
successful imperialist ventures were overshadowed by a failed campaign in
Mexico to create a French-Mexican Empire and the Franco-Prussian War, which
resulted in his deposition.</p>

<p><b>Maximilian in Mexico:</b> Maximilian was instructed by Napoleon III in
1864 to establish a French empire in Mexico, but the Mexicans were hostile to
Maximilian and loyal to President Ju�rez. The United States invoked the Monroe
Doctrine as justification for their demand for French nonintervention. Although
the French drove Ju�rez&#8217;s army from the capital, Maximilian&#8217;s
empire disintegrated when French troops withdrew.</p>

<p><b>Treaty of Washington, 1871:</b> The Treaty of Washington was a treaty
arranged by Hamilton Fish. In it, the U.S. and Great Britain settled many minor
disputes such as the <i>Alabama </i>claims, which had arisen during the U.S.
Civil War. The treaty also provided for arbitration of disagreements over the
Canadian-American boundary and fishing rights.</p>

<p><b>Secretary of State Hamilton Fish: </b>Fish served as Grant&#8217;s
secretary of state. He arranged the Treaty of Washington, which settled
disputes with Britain over the <i>Alabama</i> claims the and Canadian-American
boundary. Also, he prevented American filibustering expeditions against Cuba
from escalating into war with Spain.</p>

<p><b>&quot;Whiskey Ring&quot;:</b> Grant&#8217;s private secretary, Orville
Babcock, was unmasked in 1875 after taking money from the &quot;whiskey
ring,&quot; a group of distillers who bribed federal agents to avoid paying
millions in whiskey taxes. On May 10, 1875, 16 distillers in areas of Saint
Louis, Milwaukee, and Chicago were captured.</p>

<p><b>Black Friday: </b>Scandal caused a short-lived financial crisis in the
United States that occurred on Friday, September 24, 1869. The panic was
precipitated when two financial speculators, James Fisk and Jay Gould,
attempted to corner the U.S. gold market. Fisk and Gould probably made a profit
of about $11 million through their manipulations.</p>

<p><b>&quot;Salary Grab Act&quot;:</b> In the Salary Grab Act of 1873, Congress
voted a 100% pay raise and a 50% increase for itself. Both raises were made
retroactive two years back. The public was shocked, leading to a Democratic
victory in the next congressional election. The act was later repealed, but it
was another example of the corruption of the postwar government.</p>

<p><b>Credit Mobilier:</b> Officials of the Union Pacific Railroad created a
fake construction company, called the Credit Mobilier, in order to cheat the
government out of money allotted to the construction of the Union Pacific
Railroads. Grant&#8217;s vice-president, Colfax, was linked to this scandal.</p>

<p><b>Sanborn Grab Fraud:</b> In the Sanborn Grab Fraud, a politician named
Sanborn was given a contract collect $427,000 in unpaid taxes, receiving a 50%
commission for all money collected. He then used this commission as Republican
campaign funds, allowing the candidate to focus on his campaign rather than
fundraising. </p>

<p><b>Bribing of Belknap:</b> William E. Belknap was Grant&#8217;s secretary of
war. He took a bribe to sell lucrative Indian trading posts in Oklahoma.
Belknap resigned in 1876 when voters learned of his corruption. Although Grant
was not personally involved, he loyally defended his subordinates.</p>

<p><b>Liberal Republicans:</b> The Liberals Republicans&#8217; revolt marked a
turning point in Reconstruction history. They split the Republican party,
supporting the Republican southern policy while attacking regular republicans
on several key issues and denouncing Grantism and the spoils system.</p>

<p><b>election of 1872:</b> In 1872, Republicans unhappy with the reelection of
President Ulysses S. Grant formed the Liberal Republican party and nominated as
their candidate the journalist Horace Greeley. Although he was also endorsed by
the Democrats, Greeley was defeated, and the new party collapsed.</p>

<p><b>Panic of 1873, depression: </b>Transforming the northern economy, the
Panic of 1873 triggered a five-year depression. Banks closed, farm prices
plummeted, steel furnaces stood idle, and one out of four railroads failed.
However, once the depression began, demand rose. This issue divided both major
parties and was compounded by the repayment of federal debt.</p>

<p><b>&quot;Waving the bloody shirt&quot;: </b>During the election of 1876, the
Republicans backed Rutherford Hayes against the Democratic candidate, Samuel
Tilden. They resorted to a tactic known as &quot;waving the bloody shirt,&quot;
which was used in the last two elections. The tactic emphasized wartime
animosities by urging northern voters to vote the way they shot. </p>

<p><b><u>Greenbacks, Ohio Ideas</u></b>: During the Civil War the Union had
borrowed money through the sale of war bonds, known as Greenbacks, to private
citizens. Senator John Sherman of Ohio and other Republican leaders obtained
passage of the Public Credit Act of 1869, which promised to pay the war debt in
&quot;coin.&quot; Debtors favored the Greenbacks because they could repay debts
easier with this inflated currency.</p>

<p><b>Specie Resumption Act: </b>The Sherman Specie Resumption Act promised to
put the nation effectively on the gold standard in 1879. With some convincing,
it changed the minds of the Republican voters who also wanted to continue
Greenbacks for the sake of &quot;easy money.&quot; Grant signed this act.
Unfortunately, robber barrons schemed to corner the gold market. </p>

<p><b>Greenback-Labor Party</b>: The Greenback party was formed in 1876 with
James Weaver as its presidential candidate. The party adopted the
debtors&#8217; cause, fought to keep greenbacks in circulation, and promoted
the inflation of farm prices. The party elected 14 members to Congress . As
prosperity returned, the Greenbacks faded.</p>

<p><b>election of 1876:</b> The presidential election of 1876 resulted in
neither Democrat Samuel Tilden nor Republican Rutherford Hayes receiving the
185 electoral votes necessary to become president. There were 20 disputed
votes, and a Congressional committee gave all of these to Hays, making him
president. In exchange, he ended military rule of the South.</p>

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